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READERS, SONS OF ECHO: SHARING LITERARY EXPERIENCE

Abstract
This paper aims at analysing, in a phenomenological perspective, how meaning occurs in literary readings as well as in literary discussions. The study takes as its empirical starting point a seminar session, in which several academic readers have shared their experiences of the same novel. It appeared that the constitution of the novel's meaning was modified and continued during the discussion and, therefore, that the meaning of the novel was not available before the discussion happened. Then, to understand what happened before the discussion, the inquiry relies on P. Bayard's theoretical elaborations, which state that the solitary experience of reading itself involves previous readings: the subjectivity of the reader is haunted by a plurality of texts, virtually involved in the process of reading of the novel. Therefore, the article intends to explore the notion of potential space, coined by Winnicott, and to define it as an intersubjective space, made of virtual subjectivities. Ultimately, to describe the way a new meaning has arisen between the participants, the study relies on M. Richir's phenomenology. The point, here, is to question the actual but unconscious interweaving of the subjectivities in the discussion. Thus, the study provides a deeper understanding of the creativity of the act of reading, by assuming that creativity cannot happen without a plurality of subjectivities, existing or virtual.

Key words
Act of reading, phenomenology, cultural experience, creativity, meaning, intersubjectivity.

References

• Bayard, P. (2011). Comment parler des livres qu'on n'a pas lus? Paris: Minuit.
• Husserl, E. (2002). Phantasia, conscience d'image, souvenir: de la phénoménologie des présentifications intuitives: textes posthumes (1898–1925). Grenoble: Millon.
• Richir, M. (1991). Sens et Paroles: pour une approche phénoménologique du langage. In G. Florival (Ed.), Figures de la Rationalité — Études d'Anthropologie philosophique IV (228-246). Louvain: Peeters Publishers.
• Richir, M. (2003). Du rôle de la phantasia au théâtre et dans le roman. Littérature, (132), 24–33.
• Richir, M. (2004). Phantasia, imagination, affectivité. Phénoménologie et anthropologie phénoménologique. Grenoble: Millon.
• Richir, M. (2008). Fragments phénoménologiques sur le langage. Grenoble: Millon.
• Tengelyi, L. (2010). La formation de sens comme événement. Eikasia. Revista de Filosofía, (34), 149–174.
• Vermersch, P. (2005). Tentative d'approche expérientielle du sens se faisant. Expliciter, (60), 48–55.
• Winnicott, D. W. (1975). Jeu et réalité: l'espace potentiel. Paris: Gallimard.
• Winnicott, D. W. (2010). Les Objets transitionnels. Paris: Payot.
• Winnicott, D. W. (2012). De la communication et de la non-communication. La Capacité d'être seul. Paris: Payot.

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IN DEFENCE OF GADAMER'S NOTION OF UNDERSTANDING IN THE CONTEXT OF IDEOLOGICAL CRITIQUE

Abstract
The article attempts to defend and advance the project of Gadamer's hermeneutics of trust given that today the notion of understanding is inextricably tied to the view of tradition, discourse and language as inevitably contaminated by ideological distortions by supplementing it with Foucault's critical insights. The common ground between Foucault and Gadamer is that both thinkers militate against the notion of understanding as a process guided by universal criteria of rationality (in particular against Habermas' notion of non-distorted communication) maintaining instead that individuals are inextricably embedded within a particular tradition. Foucault, we maintain, is extremely important for Gadamer in that he develops a mode of critical relationship towards the tradition but precisely understood as a dynamic within the tradition itself, renegotiating and expanding the space of personal freedom; this process, no doubt, being guided by engaged individual perspective and self-understanding without any recourse to an Archimedean point of view outside of any tradition. In doing so Foucault is able to provide a much needed method of immanent critique of ideological distortions (potentially always present in the tradition, discourse or language) that remains faithful to the basic tenants of Gadamer's hermeneutic outlook. We consider a model that schematically demonstrates how such immanent critique can be carried out. We take Gadamer's notion of understanding as realised in an open and charitable dialogue and internalise this dialogue within a single subject taking place between two distinct perspectives: a critical Foucauldian perspective on the one hand, and the immediate self-undertstanding of situated subjectivity on the other. This internal dialogue should enable the subject to maintain a critical distance with respect to aspects of oneself that are a product of social practices and conditions (as demanded by critics of Gadamer), yet remaining within the space of Gadamerian dialogical understanding situated in the first-person ontology.

Key words
Philosophical hermeneutics, hermeneutics of trust, hermeneutics of suspicion, under- standing, dialogue, prejudices, ideology.

References

• Akhutin, A.V. (2010). Kriticheskii analiz otnosheniya «poznaniya sebya» i «zaboty o sebe» u pozdnego M. Fuko [Critical analysis of the relationship between “knowledge of oneself” and “care of the self” in late Foucault]. In S.S. Khoruzhii (Ed.), Fonar' Diogena. Proekt sinergiinoi antropologii v sovremennom gumanitarnom kontekste [Diogenes' Lantern. The project of synergetic anthropology in the context of contemporary humanities] (240-272). Moscow: Progress. (in Russian).
• Dreyfus, H. L., & Rabinow, P. (1983). Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Fuko, M. (2006). Etika zaboty o sebe kak praktika svobody [Ethics of the Care of the Self as a Practice of Freedom]. In V. P. Bol'shakov (Ed.), Intellektualy i vlast' [Intellectuals and power] (241-270). Moscow: Praksis. (in Russian).
• Fuko, M. (2007). Germenevtika sub'ekta. Kurs lektsii, prochitannykh v Kollezh de Frans v 1981– 1982 uchebnomu godu [Hermeneutics of the subject. The 1981–1982 College de France lecture course]. St. Petersburg: Nauka. (in Russian).
• Fuko, M. (2008). O nachale germenevtiki sebya [On the origins of the hermenetucs of the self]. Logos, (2), 65–95. (in Russian).
• Gadamer, H.-G. (1975). Hermeneutics and the Social Sciences. Cultural Hermeneutics, (2), 307– 316.
• Gadamer, H.-G. (1986). The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy. New Haven: Yale University Press.
• Gadamer, Kh.-G. (1988). Istina i metod [Truth and method]. Moscow: Progress. (in Russian).
• Gadamer, Kh.-G. (1999). Tekst i interpretatsiya [Text and interpretation]. In V. Shtegmaier, Kh. Frank, B. V. Markov (Eds.), Germenevtika i dekonstruktsiya [Hermeneutics and deconstruction] (202-242). St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Press. (in Russian).
• Habermas, J. (1977). A review of Gadamer's Truth and Method. In F. R. Dallmayr & T.A. McCarthy (Eds.), Understanding and Social Inquiry (335-363). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
• Habermas, J. (1987). Theory of Communicative Action: Volume Two. Liveworld and System: A Critique of Functionalist Reason. Cambrige: Polity.
• Kelly, M. (1995). Gadamer, Foucault and Habermas on Ethical Critique. In L. K. Schmidt (Ed.), The Specter of Relativism: Truth, Dialogue and Phronesis in Philosophical Hermeneutics (224-235). Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
• Khaidegger, M. (2006). Bytie i vremya [Being and Time]. St. Petersburg: Nauka. (in Russian).
• Kögler, H. H. (1999). The Power of Dialogue: Critical Hermeneutics After Gadamer and Foucault. Cambridge: MIT Press.
• Luxon, N. (2008). Ethics and Subjectivity: Practices of Self-Governance in the Late Lectures of Michel Foucault. Political Theory, 36 (3), 377–402.
• Mikhel', D. V. (1999). Mishel' Fuko v strategiyakh sub'ektivatsii: ot «Istorii bezumiya» do «Zaboty o sebe»: Materialy lektsionnykh kursov 1996–1998 godov [Michel Foucault in the strategies of subjectivation: from “The History of Madness” to “The care of the self”: the materials of 1996- 1998 lecture courses]. Saratov: Publishing house of the Volga affiliated branch of the Russian training center. (in Russian).
• Pogonyailo, A. G. (2007). Mishel' Fuko. Istoriya sub'ektivnosti [Michel Foucault. The history of subjectivity]. In Germenevtika sub'ekta. Kurs lektsii, prochitannykh v Kollezh de Frans v 1981– 1982 uchebnomu godu [Hermeneutics of the subject. The 1981–1982 College de France lecture course] (597-662). St. Petersburg: Nauka. (in Russian).
• Rabinow, P. (Ed.). (1984). The Foucault Reader. New York: Pantheon Books.
• Warnke, G. (2002). Hermeneutics, Ethics, and Politics. In R. Dostal (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Gadamer (79-101). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Zuckert, C. H. (2002). Hermeneutics in Practice: Gadamer on Ancient Philosophy. In R. Dostal (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Gadamer (201-224). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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METAPHYSICS OF METAPHOR AND ENIGMA OF POETIC WORD:
CONCEPT OF POETIC LANGUAGE IN MARTIN HEIDEGGER'S PHILOSOPHY

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to outline the concept of poetical language in Martin Heidegger's philosophy, including review of his critique of metaphor as belonging to the oblivion of Being and his attempt to define the essence of language from within the language itself. The paper reads through a number of Heidegger's essays on language and poetry and compares his views on metaphor and poetic essence of language with those of Aristotle, Herder and Russian poet Osip Mandelstam. Heidegger rejects representational thinking and refuses to treat language as an object, defining the initial word of language as nothing of being (nichts Seiendes). Poetry does not speak with the help of metaphors (name transport), since it is itself a naming which does not define beings, but calls for them (ruft ins Wort). The essence of a being (Seiende), its sense, should be understood from its Being (Sein) as something that is present in its presence (Anwesen). However, the presence is not a simple boundary between past and future, since it is itself a transfer, which includes both presence and absence (Anwesen und Abwesen). Thus, the referent of poetical word is a nothing of beings (keine Seienden), since it is the Being (Sein). The essence of poetic word is closely linked to the change in understanding of ontological difference in later Heidegger's works, where the term Unterschied is introduced instead of Differenz in order to show the eventual nature of Being and the eventual nature of the initial word. Poetic word as the word of Being is an event which opens the world and gives way to language as signification. The task of poetry is, therefore, to search for the initial word, which does not produce meanings, but whose sense is in the rhythm of Being.

Key words
Poetry, word, metaphor, event, ontological difference, naming.

References

• Aristotel'. (2007). Poetika. Ritorika [Poetics. Rhetoric]. St. Petersburg: Azbuka-klassika. (in Russian).
• Bofre, Zh. (2009). Dialog s Khaideggerom. Priblizhenie k Khaideggeru [Dialogue with Heidegger. Horizon 3 (1) 2014 21 Approach to Heidegger]. St. Petersburg: Vladimir Dal'. (in Russian).
• Chernyakov, A. G. (1992). Nachala khronologii [Origins of chronology]. In G. I. Benevich (Ed.), Trudy Vysshei religiozno-filosofskoi shkoly T. 1: Patrologiya. Filosofiya. Germenevtika. [Proceedings of St. Petersburg school of religion and philosophy. Vol. 1: Patrology. Philosophy. Hermeneutics] (43-88). St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg School of Religion and Philosophy. (in Russian).
• Chernyakov, A. G. (2001). Ontologiya vremeni. Vremya i bytie v filosofii Aristotelya, Gusserlya i Khaideggera. [Ontology of time. Time and being in the philosophy of Aristotle, Husserl and Heidegger]. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg School of Religion and Philosophy. (in Russian).
• Chernyakov, A. G. (2004). Khaidegger i greki [Heidegger and the Greeks]. In D.Y. Dorofeev (Ed.), Martin Khaidegger: Sbornik statei [Collection of essays on Martin Heidegger] (218-252). St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg School of Religion and Philosophy. (in Russian).
• Fedchuk, D. (2013). Skholasticheskoe razlichie v sushchem i ontologicheskaya differentsiya [Scholastic Distinction in Finite Being and Ontological Difference]. Horizon. Fenomenologicheskie issledovaniya [Horizon. Studies in phenomenology], 2(2), 75–86. (in Russian).
• Gerder, I. G. (2007). Traktat o proiskhozhdenii yazyka. [Tractatus on the origins of language]. Moscow: LKI. (in Russian).
• Heidegger, M. (2004). On the essence of language: the metaphysics of language and the essencing of the word; concerning Herder's treatise On the origin of language. New York: State University of New York Press.
• Heidegger, M. (1985). Die Sprache im Gedicht. Eine Erörterung von Georg Trakls Gedicht. Frankfurt a. Main: Vittorio Klostermann.
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• Heidegger, M. (1996). Holderlin's hymn «The Ister». Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Khaidegger, M. (1998). Vvedenie v metafiziku [Introduction to metaphysics]. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg School of Religion and Philosophy. (in Russian).
• Khaidegger, M. (2000). Polozhenie ob osnovanii. Stat'i i fragmenty [The principle of reason. Articles and fragments]. St. Petersburg: Aletejja. (in Russian).
• Khaidegger, M. (2006). Bytie i vremya [Time and Being]. St. Petersburg: Nauka. (in Russian).
• Mandel'shtam, O. (2010). Razgovor o Dante [Talk on Dante]. Moscow: Progress-Pleyada. (in Russian).
• Mikhailov, A.V. (2006). Izbrannoe. Istoricheskaya poetika i germenevtika [Selected essays. Historical poetics and hermeneutics]. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University. (in Russian).
• Pas, O. (2000). Osvyashchenie miga [The Consecration of the instant]. St. Petersburg: Simpozium. (in Russian).
• Ricœur, P. (1979). The rule of metaphor: multi-disciplinary studies of the creation of meaning in language. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
• Ziarek, Kr. (2013). Language after Heidegger. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

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